The Early Religious Life of Kashmir

The valley of Kashmir is surrounded on all sides by a chain of mountain ranges. To the north lies a series of mountains which hasten away in wild confusion to the great promontory of Nanga Parbat (26,182 feet). To the east rises Mt Harmukh (16,903 feet) which guards the valley of Sindh, a major tributary of Jhelum River in the Ganderbal district. On the south is Mahadeo looking down upon Srinagar, the high range of Gwash Brari- the Goddess of Light (17,800 feet) and the lofthy peak of Amarnath (17,321 feet). The Pir-Panjal range with peaks of 15,000 feet or more stands on the south west, over which ancient trade routes with Punjab lay. Further north is the Tosmaidan (14,000 feet) and in the north-west rises the majestic Kajinag (12,125). 

Walled off by such high mountains and endowed with unequalled natural beauty, Kashmir remained a protected sanctuary of Indian culture for hundreds of centuries. Buddhism, Shaivism, and Sanskrit learning flourished in the valley and produced a remarkably rich culture. The Muslim conquest of the region in 14th century overturned the social structures of Kashmir. But prior to that, the integration of Kashmiri life was so complete that Kshemendra, a staunch Shaivaite, produced a remarkable book on the Avadanas of the Buddha. The work was considered as a classic in later Buddhist literature. It’s therefore important to understand the early religious life of Kashmiri people.  

Naga Worship

Naga worship most properly referred to as Naga cult in India is one of the oldest and wide spread forms of religion. Many experts on Kashmir have put that Nagas were the tribal people living on the mountain slopes of entire northern belt of the country. Usha Mishra, in her book “Religious History of Kashmir” notes that the evidences from Mohenjo-Daro and Harappan sites tend to suggest that snakes’ worship was a feature of the Indian people whose branches had spread to the land of Kashmir. The sources such as the Nilamatapurana, Kalhana’s Rajtarangini and the Vasukipurana suggest the origin of Naga cult in the region of Kashmir. Accounts of Chinese travelers such as Fa-Hian and Heuen Tsang and Abul Fazal, the royal courtier and the author of the Akbarnama, mention that there were several places sacred to the serpents in Kashmir. 

According to Nilmatapurana in the 4th and 3rd century B.C., it might have been the principle religion of Kashmir. Nagas are said to have been born of Kadru, wife of Kashyapa, one of the Sapatarishis, the seven ancient sages of the Rigveda. Christopher Snedden, in his book “Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris” says that the name Kashmir could have been a shortened form of ‘Kashyapa Mir’ (the lake of the sage Kashyapa) or ‘Kashyapa Meru’ (Kashyapa’s Mount Meru). The Nilamatapurana records at a great length how Kashmir was created out of water and left to the care of the Nagas of whom Nila, the son of Kashyapa, was the chief. 

The Buddhist Tradition of Kashmir 

Buddhism seems to have obtained a footing in Kashmir as early as the 3rd century B.C. when most of the Nagas started following it.  The Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) chronicle Mahavamsa preserves an account of the introduction of Buddhism in Kashmir by Majjhantika (Madhyantika), an Indian Buddhist monk who received teaching from Ananda. Further, the Tibetan work Dul-va and the account of Heuen Tsang, a Chinese traveler to the valley have also recorded that Buddhism was first preached in the region by Madhyantika. 

Kalhana’s Rajtarangini has mentions that suggest Kashmir formed the part of Ashoka, who was follower of Buddha. As per the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Heuen Tsang, the Stupas built by the emperor existed even during his visit to the valley. In his accounts, he has further noted that Askoka was zealous in preaching and disseminating Buddhism in the length and breadth of his kingdom expanding unto the secluded valley of Kashmir.  

Shaivism in Kashmir 

In his book “Early History and Culture of Kashmir”, S. C. Ray has noted that Buddhism seems to have been overshadowed by growing Shiava and Vaishnava faith during the reign of King Lalitaditya Muktapida of Karkota dynasty. The Martand temples of Anantnag city of today’s Kashmir shows the memories of Lalitaditya. King Avantiveraman (A.D. 855/56-883), the founder of Utpala dynasty supplanted the Karkotas. He was a staunch follower of Shiva and Vishnu. The architectural remains discovered from the site of Avantipura, the town founded by him depicts images of Vishnu, Shiva and other Brahmnical gods. 

However, based on Kalhana’s writings there was shrine of Shiva even in the pre-Ashokan days. Ashoka himself was devotee of Shiva and built two temples as a mark of his worship to the God.  His son Jalauka too worshiped Shiva and built shrine of Shiva Jyeshtharudra at Srinagar. 

Vaishnavism in Kashmir

The ancient and early medieval history of Kashmir portrays the region as the important seat of Vaishnavaite learning and spiritual culture. Works such as Nilamatapurana, Rajtarangini and the Pancharatra rituals in the Kashmiri Vishnudharmottara Purana have ample anecdotes of the spiritual tradition. 

Lalitaditya, the illustrious king of Karkota dynasty was also a devotee of Lord Vishnu and built glorious silver statute of Vishnu Parihasakesava in the town of Parihasapura. His queen Kamlavati put up a large silver image of Kamalkesava (Lord Vishnu). The Utpala dynasty who succeeded the Karkota dynasty too worshiped Lord Vishnu in his many forms e.g. Avantiveraman and his brother Suraverman built the temples of Vishnu Avantiswami and Suraveramnswami respectively.  

Besides Vishnu and Shiva there were many other Hindu gods and goddesses in the early Kashmirian pantheon. The most important of them include Surya, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Agni, Lakshmi, Durga, Ganga, Yamuna and Kamdev. Innumerable literary evidences of their worship and some of their images too have survived and accounted for.  

Forest Management by Communities, for Communities and Akhil Bhartiya Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram

6 July, 2021 happens to be a historic day in relation to granting of Community Forest Resource Management Rights to Tribal and other Traditionally Forest Dwelling Communities across India. On this day a “Joint Circular” was signed by Shri R.P. Gupta, Secretary, Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC), and Shri Anil Kumar Jha, Secretary, Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA), in the presence of the then Minister of MoEFCC Shri Prakash Javadekar and Minister of MoTA Shri Arjun Munda in New Delhi. This decision is a step towards recognizing community forest resource management rights to the Forest Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDSTs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs).

The community forest rights and individuals claims of ownership over the land being cultivated by these communities for generations were recognized as per the provisions enshrined in what's known as "The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditionally Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006" which is also commonly known as the Forest Rights Act (FRA). The Act was notified into force on 31 December 2007 and came into operation with the notification of Rules on 1 January 2008 for carrying out the provisions of the Act. The responsibility to implement the provisions of the act was vested with Ministry of Tribal Affairs at the central level and tribal welfare departments at the state levels.  But the actual implementation of the Act remained elusive thus far due to lack of coordination between bureaucracies of tribal departments and forest departments of the concerned states.

As noted above, for the FDSTs and OTFDs forests are the source of livelihood, identity, customs and traditions as they inhabited them for generations and were in occupation of the forest for centuries. Despite them being integral to the very survival and sustainability of the forest ecosystem, their rights on their ancestral lands and their habitats had not been adequately recognized. Therefore, these people felt emotionally and physically alienated from forests and forest lands due to insecurity of tenure and fear of eviction. The FRA, 2006 was enacted in order to correct this historical injustice.  

The “Joint Circular” unequivocally recognizes that there is a considerable lapse of time since the Act came into force and yet the process of recognition of rights is not completed. Recognizing that the operationalization of Section 5 of the Act as the area of concern, both the ministries have resolved to smoothen the implementation of the Act. Most importantly, it quite categorically states that Community Forest Resource is customary common forest land to which the community had traditional access. Section 3(1)(i) provides for rights to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource to the FDSTs and OTFDs. Further as per the provisions in Rule 4(1)(e) and (f), the frontline staff of the State Forest Department has been issued with guidelines to extend assistance to the institutions and committees, particularly Gramsabhas, constituted to manage forest resources. Further, an emphasis has also been laid on synergizing the functions of the two Ministries at the Central level and at both the Forest and Tribal Welfare Departments of the State Governments. Furthermore, this communication assures that the two ministries will issue a joint circular, if necessary, in the future as well to remove the hurdles on the way of implementing provisions in the FRA.

It’s very pertinent to mention that Akhil Bhartiy Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram (ABVKA) had been making persistent efforts in this direction since the Modi government assumed power in 2014. The “Joint Circular” issued on 6 July, 2021 on the part of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and Ministry of Forests, Environment and Climate Change is the culmination of ABVKA's long-drawn process of lobbying and follow ups. Therefore in its resolution passed on 19 July 2021 at its National Executive Board Meet at Central Office in Jashpur, ABVKA has welcomed the government’s move wholeheartedly. However, it maintains caution as the circular in itself is not sufficient, unless its guidelines are implemented in their letter and spirit. The frequent instances of friction between the forest departments and tribal welfare departments at the state levels created a lot of stumbling blocks in the implementation of the Act thereby making it ineffective. Due to the prevalence of such a situation, so far merely 10% implementation of the provisions of the Community Forest Resource Management Rights, as enshrined in the FRA, could be achieved.

The forest department of the concerned states must play the role of facilitator without hindering the local community activities. This alone will give an agency to the Gramsabhas, the representative bodies of FDSTs and OTFDs, to improve their livelihood by utilizing their forest resources sustainably. At the same, there is an urgent need on the part of forest officials to come out of the colonial mindset that looked at the tribal and other traditional forest dwelling communities as the encroachers on the forests. Moreover, they have protected and preserved these forests for centuries. They lived, thrived in the vicinity of these forests and yet protected these resources since time immemorial,

ABVKA as the largest organization working for the socio-economic and overall development of tribal communities across India has a long drawn experience of working with these communities. It’s important to mention that the organization was crucial in facilitating the Community Forest Resource Management activities of Sanyukta Van Vyavasthapan Samiti, Baripada (SVVSB) in Dhule district of Maharashtra that involves the cluster of 45 villages. Along with SVVSB, the Community Forest Management experiments in Kalwan (Koswan) village panchayat and Metghar Killa in the Nasik District are being successfully carried out due to guidance and assistance of ABVKA.

As a leading organization working for the tribal cause across India, ABVKA’s Central Executive Board (Kendriya Karykari Mandal), in its resolution, passed on 19 July 2021, has appealed fervently to all the state governments of India to implement the provisions of FRA as per the latest guidelines issued by the Government of India. It further says that it’s equally important to upload the quarterly report of the action plan of implementation and status of management right as provided in Section 3-1(i) of the FRA on the website by every state in a time-bound manner.  Degree/diploma courses in Community Forest Resource Management Rights and duties in college/university curricula can be crucial in educating Gramsabha representatives and youths. Establishment of ‘Van Vigyan Kendras’ on the lines of ‘Krishi Vigyan Kendras’ in tribal majority districts is a much sought after step which will enhance the livelihood of tribal and other traditional forest dwelling communities.

As far the duties are concerned, ABVKA also appeals to entire Janjati Communities, Volunteer Organisations, elected representatives from Janjati Communities, social leaders and  educated youths of Janjati Society that they should reach out to people in villages, tolas, Bastis, Hamlets, etc. to make them aware of their claims over the forest resources. It’s equally important for them to protect and reproduce forest resources to utilize them in a sustainable manner. This alone will keep the forest environment and biodiversity intact on which their livelihood is dependant for centuries. 

Does 'International Day of World's Indigenous Peoples' Have Any Relevance in India ?

World community observes 9 August every year as the ‘International Day of World’s Indigenous Peoples’ to promote and protect the rights of the world’s indigenous population. On this day, the original inhabitants or aboriginals in the various parts of the world gather together to remember the atrocities and subjugations they suffered in the hands of domineering people coming from different lands. Such solidarity among them has built up a solid pressure on the world community to recognize their rights taking their distinct culture and way of life into account.  

A subsidiary body within the structure of United Nations called the Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) established in 1982 met for the first time in Geneva in the same year. Following the deliberations and recommendations of this body, the UN General Assembly on 23 December 1994 decided that each year 9^th August should be observed as the International Day of World’s Indigenous People.

The UN General Assembly in its resolution 48/163 of 1993 proclaimed that the world community will observe the first International Decade of World’s Indigenous Peoples from 1995-2004. The main objectives of this decade were to strengthen international cooperation for the solution of problems faced by indigenous people in such areas as human rights, the environment, development, education, and health. As per the resolution A/RES/59/174 adopted by the General Assembly on 22 December 2004, a Second International Decade commenced on 1 January 2005 and concluded in December 2014. The focused areas of this decade were promoting non-discrimination and inclusion, full and effective participation, adopting culturally appropriate development policies, etc.   

India does recognize and support the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples but strongly maintains that in India, all Indians are indigenous. It’s of the opinion that the very concept of ‘Indigenous Peoples’ is misfit in Indian context and rightly so. Hence it’s important to understand the description in relation to the concept.

The International Labour Organization’s convention on ‘Indigenous Peoples’ of 1957 in its Article 1(a) characterizes them as less advanced on their socio-economic conditions in comparison to other sections of the national community. Further in Article 1(b), it says that they are the descendants of the original inhabitants before the conquest or colonization of the country or a geographical region and that their social, economic, and cultural institutions are distinct from people coming from outside.

From the above description of the concept of indigenousness, it’s quite clear that in India prior to Islamic aggressions and the subsequent conquests in medieval times or British colonization in the modern era, there is no history suggesting aggressions or conquests. Moreover, there are innumerable examples of harmonious coexistence and cultural exchange between and among people living in towns, villages, forests, and hills.  The the colonial ill-intentioned invention of Aryan Invasion theory stands debunked from many quarters of historians and archeologists today.

The Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, Ramayana, and Mahabharata are replete with anecdotes that portray the intermingling of these cultures. Acharya Vinoba Bhave held Rigveda as the text of the janjatis. Many scholars believe that the ‘panchjanas’ mentioned in the Rigveda consisted of a person each from the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas, shudras and nishads- a tribal community and commanded equal status. The references of the the sabaras or the saoras could be traced to Aittareya Brahman. Many romantic and friendly descriptions of the tribals can be found in ancient Sanskrit literature like Panchatantra, Kathasarit Sagar, Vishnu Purarn etc.

Shabari offering fruits to Bhagwan Shri Ram

Shabari, who offered fruits to Rama, has become in Verrier Elwin’s words, “a symbol of the contributions that tribes can and will make to the life of India.” The tribal community had a very important and honorable place in the Ramayana. Vali and Sugriva have been mentioned of as the most glorious kings of the tribal society in the Ramayana. Most of the then known tribals have been described to have participated in the Mahabharata and its innumerable episodes. 

Eklavya's supreme sacrifice for his Master

Eklavya, a Bhil, has been described as an ideal disciple and embodiment of sacrifice. The Mahabharata has ample descriptions of tribal kingdoms and warriors fighting both to the sides of Pandavas and Kauravas. Bhima’s son Ghatotkacha who performs prodigies of valor in the war is born of his tribal wife Hindimba; Arjuna marries Uloopi, a Naga princess.

Bhagwan Birsa Munda

There are many evidences in the medieval and modern history of Bharat when people of the tribal communities fought shoulder to shoulder with Maharana Pratap, Chatrapti Shivaji Maharaj and Tatya Tope in defense of Dharama and Rashtra. Furthermore, in many parts of India, they rose up against the British and joined the India’s struggle for independence. To name some of the heroes of uprisings against British are Bhagwan Birsa Munda from Jharkhand, Umaji Naik from Maharashtra, Tantya Bheel from Madhya Pradesh, Alluri Sitaram Raju from Andhra Pradesh, and Rani Gaidinliu from Nagaland, Matmur Jamoh from Arunchal Pradesh, Pa Togan Sangma from Garo Hills, Meghalaya.

The above examples suggest that tribal people in India have the same notions of common friends and foes as that of the other people. Many tribal communities that have been talked of in the ancient and medieval times don’t exist today as a result of acculturation. Many Rajput kings in the Middle Ages migrated to inaccessible forest areas to evade the tyranny of Islamic rulers and became tribals, for example, Rani Durgavati a Chandela Rajput princess married a Gond King Dalpat Shah of Gadha Mandla and fought against Moghals. Therefore, Dr. Ghurye, a renowned sociologists observers, “Though for the sake of convenience they may be designated as the tribal classes of Hindu society suggesting thereby the social fact that they have retained much more of the tribal creeds and organizations than many of the other castes of the society yet in reality they are backward Hindus”.

Therefore, while we recognize the atrocities, subjugations, and in some cases ethnic cleansing suffered by indigenous populations in the Americas, Australia, and many other parts of the world, we don’t share anything in common with such history on our land. The practice of borrowing from other cultures and imposing that in our social milieu is counterproductive. Such artificially created sense of fissure and discord between communities needs to be rejected lock, stock, and barrel. 

The “Janjatiya Gaurav Diwas” being observed each year on 15th November since 2021 is, in fact, a day of celebration to commemorate Janjati people’s contributions in maintaining Bharat’s social fabric alive. Their courage, bravery and sacrifices are immense in keeping the Bharatiya values intact. 

Shradheya Jagdev Ram Oraon Ji

 

Revered Jagdev Ram Uroan Jee left for heavenly abode three years year ago on 15 July 2020 at Akhil Bhartiya Vanvasi Kalyan Ahram’s (ABVKA) National Office at Jashpur, his  workplace at least for half a century. While we remember him on his death anniversary, it’s very important for us as a nation to remember his journey and legacy.

He remained National President of ABVKA for twenty five years after inheriting the mantle from his master revered Vanvyogi Balasaheb Deshpande Jee. He truly lived up to the trust and confidence with which the baton was passed on to him by his master. Though he belonged to a poor janjati family in Komdo village in Jashpur Nagar district of today’s Chhattisgarh state, he did not confine himself to the worries of hearth and home. He remained unmarried and dedicated all his life for the cause of janjati community of Bharat.

Jagdev Ram Uroan Jee was born on 9 October 1949 to Aghnu Ram and Buchhubai. He was the eldest of four daughters and three sons of his parents. He started attending RSS Shakhas, the morning and evening gatherings of swayansevaks (volunteers) at his early age. He did his Master of Arts (M.A.) and acquired a degree in Physical Education. Having come from janjati community himself, it was quite easy for him to get a government job in those days and start a normal family life but he chose to live the life of a hermit.

The far-flung and inaccessible areas of today’s Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand primarily inhabited by janjati community had remained much underdeveloped. Poverty, illiteracy due to lack of schools and immense scarcity of health facilities were all pervasive in the region. The situation was rendered a fertile ground for evangelical missions who were fervently carrying on with their activities of converting janjatis into Christian fold taking advantage of their poverty and innocence. It was in this backdrop that Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla, the then Chief Minister of Central Provinces (today’s Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh) visited the region in the late 1940s.

In this visit, he was welcomed everywhere but was shown black flags and asked to go back when he reached Jashpur. His experiences in this visit exposed him to unimaginable backwardness and massive conversion so prevalent among people. This made him think to assuage sufferings and anguish of people by coordinating with revered Thakkar Bappa, a well known Gandhian who had extensively worked in the janjati areas. Very soon social welfare department was established and Balasaheb Deshpande Jee joined the same in 1948. After Thakkar Bappa’s death in January 1951, he found it difficult to carry on with janjati development activities due to administrative pulls and pressures. This made him think that there was a need to carry on with his developmental projects for janjati communities in the area independently leading to the establishment of Vanvasi Kalyan Ahram on 26 December 1952.

In 1977 at Surat Meet of Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram, Babasaheb Deshpande Jee decided to expand the organization's activities all over Bharat. Thus Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram became Akhil Bhartiy Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram. Since then Shri Jagdev Ram Jee started travelling with his mentor. In 1985, he was made the member of ABVKA's National Committee and further in 1987 Vice- President, Balasaheb being the President. Two years before passing away in 1995, Balasaheb nominated Jagdev Ram Jee as the National Working President of ABVKA at its Cuttack National Convention in 1993. The relationship between Balasaheb and Jagdev Ram Jee is embodied in the Guru-Shishya tradition of Bharat like that of Swami Ramkrishna Paramhans and Swami Vivekananda.

Since the time Jagdev Ram ji became president of ABVKA, he played an important role in developing the plant of Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram sown by his master Balasaheb into a banyan tree. At present ABVKA is the largest organization in Bharat working for the overall development of janjatis that covers aspects such as education, health, sports, village development, skill development, youth development, women empowerment, self help groups, protecting janjati constitutional rights and so on all over Bharat. The organization that was started with its first project having only 13 janjati children enrolled to be educated with hostel facilities today has 20,000 projects in 323 districts with footprints in more than 52,000 villages.

His life was one of devoted to the cause of janjatis of Bharat and he lived to see that happen. He was staunch believer that the janjatis are very much integral part of Bharat’s socio-cultural fabric from time immemorial. Therefore, he travelled tirelessly from north to south and east to west invoking the thought that we all are one and our destinies are intrinsically interwoven. His contributions in the successful organization of Shabri Kumbh in the Dang District of Gujrat in 2006 in which hundreds and thousands of janjatis from all over Bharat participated are immense. Similarly, he exuberantly participated along with the ocean of janjati people from all over the country in Ardha Kumbh Mela at Ujjain and Mahakumbh Mela at Prayag.

Jagdev Ram Jee was equally concerned about reinvigorating cultural heritage of janjatis. For example; he started Rohtas fort pilgrimage located in the Son River Valley, in the small town of Rohtas in Bihar. The Oraon janjati owes their origin to this fort and surroundings. People from Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bengal etc. are participating in this pilgrimage for many years now. It was in his leadership that ABVKA made rapid strides and became more vocal in the public discourse by bringing in ‘Vision Document’ for socio-economic-cultural development in 2015. He was very crucial in bringing the final draft of the document in consultation with activists, policy makers and academician from across the country. He remained at the fore front in bringing issues with regard to various issues of janjati community to the notice of constitutional authorities and policy makers and insisted on their timely resolution.

Despite being such a man of stature, his demeanor was that of simplicity, care, affection and compassion towards everyone he met. It’s because of these traits of his personality, he could easily connect with thousands of karykartas, men, women and children alike. He certainly is the strongest pillar of ABVKA that has grown leaps and bounds in every nook and corner of the country.

He lived and dedicated all his life for the cause of janjatis but his legacy is not confined to a particular community. Moreover, thoughts and deeds of great men must not be kept limited to a particular segment of society. The impact of their life’s work is pan national, across all communities. Therefore, their legacy must be re-invoked and presented to this and coming generations so that we learn to trade the path that men like Jagdev Ram Jee have created for us to follow.